In a recent blog post, Buterin acknowledged the benefits of zero-knowledge proof (ZK) technologies used in digital ID frameworks. However, he warned that enforcing a “one-ID-per-person” rule could harm pseudonymity, a core principle in digital freedom.

Buterin: ZK Technology Is Expanding — But Single IDs Are Dangerous

ZK-based identity systems such as World ID, Taiwan’s digital ID, and various EU initiatives are gaining traction. While these systems allow ID verification without revealing personal details, Buterin emphasized that even ZK-wrapped identities carry significant risks if users are forced into a single, trackable identity.

Does digital ID have risks even if it's ZK-wrapped?https://t.co/rye1q5G90G

— vitalik.eth (@VitalikButerin) June 28, 2025

“Pseudonymity in real life often depends on having multiple personas,” Buterin noted. Without this flexibility, digital activity could become entirely observable under one identity, creating surveillance risks from governments or employers.

Wealth-Based Identity Isn’t the Answer

Buterin also criticized systems that rely solely on proof of wealth to prevent Sybil attacks, arguing they favor the wealthy and exclude lower-income users. Instead, he proposed a more balanced model, where obtaining multiple identities becomes gradually more expensive — for example, requiring N² cost for N identities.

What Is Pluralistic Identity?

To counteract centralization, Buterin suggests implementing pluralistic identity systems — where no single authority controls identity issuance. Such systems can be explicit (like social-graph models such as Circles) or implicit, relying on a combination of ID sources including government IDs, social networks, and communities.

This structure, Buterin argued, is “more tolerant of errors,” particularly for stateless individuals or people lacking access to traditional identification. It also ensures no single ID system gains overwhelming dominance.

The Risk of Identity Monopolies

Buterin warned that if any single ID framework captures nearly 100% of the market, it could shift the world into a rigid one-ID-per-person paradigm — a model that undermines privacy and inclusivity.

In conclusion, Buterin emphasized that pluralistic identity is the most practical way forward, offering a resilient, inclusive, and privacy-preserving solution for the future of digital identity.

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